Racial Inequality in America in 1998

Racial Inequality in America in 1998 Racial imbalance in the United States is as yet a combative issue. The segment populace of the US might be a potential clarification for this social sick in light of the fact that as observer Ben Wattenberg implores, the United States has become the â€Å"world’s first worldwide society† (Lee, 2012, p. 2).Advertising We will compose a custom research project test on Racial Inequality in America in 1998 explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Today, most countries over the world admire the United States in amazement of its migration status taking into account the pertinent laws and approaches. The US has easily figured out how to oblige all races from Blacks to White to Asians and Hispanics inside its fringes. In any case, racial imbalance remains the best defenselessness endured by the United States’ popular government. Regardless of being the orchestrator of the Universal Bill of Rights, the US experiences gravely a fundamental malignant growth of racial imparity. This malignance goes back to the times of subjugation, during which the job of the US can't be belittled as it had the biggest number of slaves inside a confined land area (the South). Besides, much after the boycott of subjection in the US, it was notoriuious for proceeded with encroachment of human rights by separation considerably after the abolishment of servitude after the Civil War (Vorenberg, 2001, p.104). By the by, since the 1960s, the United States has made some amazing progress in the abolishment of segregation and inclination dependent on decent varieties. There have been three key enactments, viz. The Omnibus Civil Rights Act of 1964, The Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Free Housing Act of 1968 that aided the battle against racial iniquality by administering the ideal socio-political, monetary, and social result of a free United States. After the Civil War, Americans were under the feeling that the social ills prompting the common difficulty that fi nished in the war would reach a quick conclusion. In any case, the continuation of these social monstrosities until as late as 1998 was verification that it would take something beyond a couple of new laws and announcement to free individuals of the racial predisposition that had been so profoundly settled in their brains and lives. The historical backdrop of servitude goes back to the mid seventeenth Century when a Dutch boat showed up in the New World stacked with African slaves (Buell, 2004). At a certain point, there was a serious deficiency of work to run the estates and these human machines were seen as the main way out. They were solid, versatile, and unmistakably worked for hard work and brutal day to day environments, which fit their maters’ needs. Therefore, slave exchange before long turned into a rewarding business and boats kept on showing up with multitudes of Africans who from the start had been auctions off by their own networks into subjugation as outsiders, yet as the interest developed, the slave vendors started to hijack slaves for trade.Advertising Looking for research paper on sociologies? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This continued for over three centuries thus when servitude was being canceled in the mid twentieth century, whites had gotten familiar with rewarding African Americans with hatred. There was a period in history when it was not possible that an African could peruse. The white bosses didn't accept that slaves had the insight to get a handle on any information. With this sort of foundation, it is in truth estimable that the world has overcome much as to acknowledge individuals of color in practically equivalent standing. In The United States, Blacks are really positioning above Hispanics and a few Asians regarding advancement (Sowell, 2013). Be that as it may, the issue of racial disparity despite everything endures and strategy producers are coming up short on thoughts on what laws to introduce to dispose of racial imbalance once and for all. In any case, if history is a pointer, enactment alone will not take care of this issue. Following the Civil War, strategy producers concocted the Omnibus Civil Rights Act, of 1964. This Act is the mother of all antidiscrimination enactments and it secured racial, ethnic, and even sexual segregation (Lee, 2012). Title VIII is an addendum to the Act and it handles segregation at the work environment, strict separation, and lewd behavior at the work environment. It likewise made isolation unlawful and engaged the Attorney General to establish suits against organizations and offices, for example, schools and businesses who victimized their understudies and representatives separately, in light of race among different factors. The subsequent Act was the Voting Rights Act 1965. This Act set up government guideline over issues that were up to this point saved for state and neighborhood ward just, for exampl e, policy driven issues to do with casting a ballot and minorities’ rights. In 2006 when it was most as of late revised, the Republicans in the House looked to revoke the government oversight limit of the Judicial Department without any result. The third Act was the Federal Housing Act of 1968 â€Å"that denied racial segregation in the deal and leasing of housing† (Bonilla-Silva, 2006, p.94). It covers all houses including those that are separately claimed and involved. Tragically, these enactments didn't effectively dispense with racial imbalance in light of the fact that despite the fact that the law required consistence in certain institutional settings, it couldn't go about as a guard dog in each social part of bigotry. For example, it couldn't forestall bigot remarks between singular residents. This weakness in the law’s ability to address the issue of racial imbalance enough finished in a few occurrences of abhor wrongdoings that were intolerable infringe ment of human rights approaches and on account of James Byrd Jr., it cost his life (Petersen, 2011).Advertising We will compose a custom research paper test on Racial Inequality in America in 1998 explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More In 1998, at Jasper County in Texas, three white men, viz. Lawrence Russell Brewer, John William King, Shawn Berry executed James Byrd in a stunning demonstration that was depicted by one examiner as psychopathic bigotry. These three men were out on a drinking binge when they saw a dark James Byrd strolling down the road. They offered him a ride and a lager at that point started to disparage him with bigot slants (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2005). From the start, he overlooked the thorns, yet in the long run a battle followed, which finished in his throat being cut, dark paint being spread all over lastly, being tied by his feet to the rear of their truck and hauled for three or so miles until he kicked the bucket in the wake of g etting beheaded. Before long thereafter, examinations started and since it was such a horrifying demonstration of racial brutality, the Federal Bureau of Investigations coupled up with the Justice Department and the state to stub the culprits. In the end, the three men were captured, arraigned, and the jury saw them as liable of homicide (Welch, 2007). Lord and Brewer were given capital punishment as the jury decided collectively that they ought to be killed, while Berry found some useful task to fulfill sentence. One of the inquiries posed of the jury in such examples is whether it accepts that the culprit will murder again if not kill first. Racial disparity keeps on being a hostile issue in the US popular government and measurements show a steady example since from as ahead of schedule as 1968 exceptional. On the off chance that a progressive system were to be applied, whites would be on top, trailed by blacks in certain examples, and different races separately. Worryingly, the m ore current races in the US economy are as of now outperforming or taking steps to outperform the African American populace in issues of destitution and work (Lee, 2012, p. 7). In any case, the arrangement maybe lies in instruction as taught people, regardless of race, appear to live in a good norm, yet this is additionally not a secure cure on the grounds that there is as yet a hole between similarly taught partners among the races. Thusly, additional time is required for additional unification of races notwithstanding all the preventive enactments and approaches planned for annihilating racial imbalance just as instruction. As time slips, people’s mentalities appear to improve by forsaking since quite a while ago held peculiarities. Reference List Bonilla-Silva, E. (2006). Bigotry without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America. Oxford, UK: Rowman Littlefield Publishers.Advertising Searching for research paper on sociologies? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More Buell, T. (2004). Bondage in America: A Primary Source History of the Intolerable Practice of Slavery. New York, NY: The Rosen Publishing Group. Government Bureau of Investigation. (2005). Despise Crime Statistics 2004. Web. Lee, C. (2012, May). Racial Inequality: Americas Achilles Heel-Full Chapter You areâ here Todays American: How Free? Web. Petersen, J. (2011). Murder, the Media, and the Politics of Public Feelings: Remembering Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press. Sowell, T. (2013). Educated people and Race. New York, NY: Basic Books. Vorenberg, M. (2001). Last Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Welch, K. (2007). Dark Criminal Stereotypes and Racial Profiling. Diary of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 23(3), 276-288.

Dutch - The Worst Movie :: essays papers

Dutch - The Worst Movie The most noticeably terrible film I have seen recently must be Dutch. A not as much as inspiring film about a misconstrued minimal rich child and his mom's average workers beau voyaging home for thanks giving supper. They go on to a have a not all that energizing experience with an absolutely ludicrous story driving this train wreck. Not exclusively is everything that occurs in this story absolutely unimaginable. Every occasion gives you another motivation to loathe one of the characters somewhat more. Before the finish of this film I got myself not mindful if these to made it home or passed on all the while. In the start of the story the kid's mom and father have gotten a separation. I was a chaotic issue leaving the mother helpless before the dad. She has proceeded onward and begun dating a man named Dutch with a common laborers foundation. The kid, Henry, is away at life experience school anticipating his dad's visit that will never occur. The mother edgy to be there for her child attempts to persuade him to come see her for the occasion. Henry denies on the grounds that he censures his mom for not making her marriage work. Furthermore, this is were the entire thing self-destructs. The mother, Mary, concludes that she would truly like for her child to go to her home. So she sends Dutch to go up and carry the kid to her. So off like an abundance tracker in the old west Dutch goes out to get his man. Also, our experience starts. Presently directly here is were I get somewhat confounded. I can't assist with asking why Dutch, a man this poor kid has never met, is going to get him. Dislike this school is an hour away it’s several a day's in the vehicle together. Also, this may be alright under better conditions. In any case, taking into account that this kid has a ton of outrage towards his mom. You would believe this would be a decent open door for them to talk. Also the way that Henry hasn't excepted his folks separate and the exact opposite thing he is going to need to do is meet her new beau, who is assuming his dad's position in Mary's life. His mom doesn't consider accompanying. Not that she is occupied or anything.

UK Students Turn to Ivy League

UK Students Turn to Ivy League The OE Blog With university courses being cut at drastic rates and tuition fees soaring to a whopping £9000, it is no surprise that more and more UK students are setting their sights on top US universities instead. Financial Incentives For the first time, trebled tuition fees have made the price difference between a UK and a US education negligible and students are responding accordingly, with record breaking numbers attending a recent US university fair in London. In addition, as bursaries for universities in England are squeezed and slashed, Ivy League institutions offer a beguiling package of generous support options. Many UK students from low income families find that an Ivy League university would be able to fund almost their entire tuition and accommodation costs, and many even offer extra incentives such as book grants and free flights home during the vacation. Oxbridge vs. Ivy League It’s not difficult to see the many attractions American universities hold for UK students. There are far more institutions to choose from within the elite ‘Ivy League’ group, allowing more variety and room for personal preference than the Oxford vs. Cambridge conundrum in the UK. In America, students can choose from prestigious institutions in exciting cities all over the country, from Harvard in Boston to Columbia in New York. Wider Subject Choice The American university system allows students to study a much wider variety of subjects alongside their main area of interest, which appeals to many who haven’t yet decided exactly what they want to do. You can ‘major’ in your chosen subject whilst still taking a range of courses in completely different academic disciplines, all of which will eventually contribute towards your final degree. This opportunity to tailor your course to suit your own personal interests and preferences simply doesn’t exist in the UK and is extremely appealing to many who wish to escape the rigid, restrictive university course choices available here. Postgraduate Opportunities With the UK economy embroiled in a seemingly endless struggle to recover from the recession and postgraduate employment at a record low, it is no surprise that many hope America will provide greener pastures after graduation. And for those planning to seek work in the US, trying to get into an Ivy League school just makes more sense than staying at home and paying extortionate prices for UK degrees with very little promise of financial reward at the end of the road. If you’ve been thinking about Ivy League applications, keep your eyes peeled for next week’s blog, ‘How to get into the Ivy League’. It will be full of top tips for UK students hoping to study across the pond!

Essay on Furthering Knowlege of Dissociative Identity...

CLINICAL QUESTION 2 I would like to further my knowledge on the controversial mental illness identified as Dissociative Identity Disorder, or DID. More commonly known as multiple personality disorder, it has been a mental illness which gained attention from being the main focus in a variety of Hollywood’s films, aside from what has been portrayed in films I have little insight to what this disorder is. â€Å"What is Dissociative Identity Disorder, its causes and how is it clinically diagnosed?† Dissociative Identity Disorder is a target of controversy among health care professionals as a result of it displaying characteristics of false memory syndrome, as well as its common ties to childhood abuse and trauma. (Stickley †¦show more content†¦Following the end of a traumatic event the affected person’s personality resurfaces without any recollection of what had taken place. This coping mechanism allows the child to perform daily tasks without the influences of the event psyc hologically. An affected person often has different alters that have the ability to cope with different situations they may face in life. (Stickley Nickeas, 2006) Diagnosing Dissociative Identity Disorder Due to its complexity and skepticism there is minimal information in regards to dissociation, dissociative disorders, and the effects of trauma throughout the core development years of childhood. Within recent years the awareness, and study of DID from a clinical standpoint have increased and diagnosing criteria has been outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual and is as follows: (Pais, 2009) A. The presence of two or more distinct identities or personality states (each with its own relatively enduring pattern of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and self). B. At least two of these identities or personality states recurrently take control of the person’s behavior. CLINICAL QUESTION 4 C. Inability to recall important personal information that is too extensive to be explained by ordinary forgetfulness. D. The disturbance is not due to

Airline Database - 1533 Words

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION(SRS) FOR AIRLINE DATABASE Table of Contents 1. Introduction 1.1 Purpose 1.2 Document Conventions 1.3 Intended Audience and Reading Suggestions 1.4 Project Scope 1.5 References 2. Overall Description 2.1 Product Perspective 2.2 Product Features 2.3 User Classes and Characteristics 2.4 Operating Environment 2.5 Design and Implementation Constraints 2.6 Assumptions and Dependencies 3. System Features 4. External Interface Requirements 4.1 User Interfaces 4.2 Hardware Interfaces 4.3 Software Interfaces 4.4 Communications Interfaces 5. Other Nonfunctional Requirements 5.1 Performance Requirements 5.2 Safety Requirements 5.3 Security Requirements 5.4 Software Quality Attributes 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â€"  database: sql+ database ââ€"  platform: vb.net 2.5 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION CONSTRAINTS i) The global schema, fragmentation schema, allocation schema. ii) SQL commands for above queries/applications iii) How the response for application 1 and 2 will be generated. Assuming these are global queries. Explain how various fragments will be combined to do so. iv) Implement the database at least using a centralized database management system. 2.6 ASSUPMTION DEPENDENCIES Let us assume that this is a distributed airline database system and it is used in the following application: ââ€"  A request for booking/cancellation of flight from any source to any destination, giving connected flights in case no direct flight between the specified Source-Destination pair exist. ââ€"  Calculation of high fliers (most frequent fliers) and calculating appropriate reward points for these fliers. Assuming both the transactions are single transactions, we have designed a distributed database that is geographically dispersed at four cities Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkatta as shown in fig.2 above. 3. SYSTEM FEATURES ââ€"  DESCRIPTION AND PRIORITY The airline reservation system maintains information on flights, classes of seats, personal preferences, prices and bookings. Of course this project has high priority because it is very difficult to travelShow MoreRelatedAnnotated Bibliography On Database Security1383 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction: Database security is the system, processes and procedure that protect the database from unauthorized individual or malicious attacks. The researches on database security has been increased gradually over the years as the most of critical business functionalities and military secrets became digitized. Database is an integral part of the information system and often holds the sensitive data. 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How is this relationship changing over time? Information systems are increasingly tied to the organization’s business strategy, rules and procedures. A change in strategy, rules or procedures requires changes in software, hardware, databases, and telecommunications, and vice-versa. An organization’s present and future accomplishments depend in many respects on what its systems will permit it to do. Whereas ear ly information systems addressed primarily technical or operational issuesRead MoreQNT561 Sampling and Data Collection Pla Essay957 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿ Sampling and Data Collection Plan Name QNT/561 October 27, 2014 Instructor Introduction Royal Blue Airlines is a medium sized airline company offering flights throughout the United States, Mexico, Caribbean Islands, and Latin America. The company operates a fleet of Boeing 737 aircrafts and is in the process of replacing older ones with newer, state-of-the-art planes. 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The Philosophy of Action in Hamlet Free Essays

‘Words, words, words’: Hamlet’s philosophy of action Central to any drama is action. What distinguishes drama from other literary forms is the very fact that it is acted upon a stage, that voice is given to the words and that movement creates meaning. It is, therefore, puzzling that the most seminal dramatic work in the English language contains, arguably, precious little of what many might describe as dramatic action. We will write a custom essay sample on The Philosophy of Action in Hamlet or any similar topic only for you Order Now Nevertheless it has moved, enthralled and, what is more, entertained generations of theatre goers across the centuries and is still regarded as one of Shakespeare’s most popular play. It has divided critics: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe regards as central to the play Hamlet’s inability to act[1] whereas T. S. Eliot reduces the work to ‘an artistic failure’. [2] If Tom Stoppard is to be believed, even the characters are at odds with this apparent lack of drama as Stoppard’s Rosencrantz asks ‘is it too much to expect a little sustained action?! ’[3] If then, we are to acknowledge that action is central to drama, it is important to remember that such action is usually derived from conflict. When regarding Hamlet through this basic philosophy, the play is in every way dramatic. The play is concerned with conflict. We have international conflict, familial conflict and internal conflict and it is these conflicts that drive the play. This is confirmed within the opening line ‘Who’s there? ’(I. i. 1)[4] Immediately we are plunged into the state of paranoia that envelops Elsinore, the question is confrontational and, furthermore, directs us towards the international conflict between Denmark and Norway. The drama of the play, however, is not as simple as this. For instance, we must also consider the dramatic structure of a play and apply this to Hamlet; a structure that goes from equilibrium to conflict and then on to a new equilibrium. It is impossible to relate this to the play; for who would agree that the Elsinore, at the start of Hamlet, is in a state of equilibrium? Indeed, as Stephen Ratcliffe points out, the catalyst for all action in the play does not occur within the play[5]. The murder of Hamlet’s father has already happened when Barnardo delivers that famous first line, a line which itself suggests a response to something that has happened offstage. Ratcliffe goes on to discuss that the line could almost be a response to a ‘knock knock’ joke but more seriously that it: begin[s] the play in response not only to some implicit, unspoken physical action- some motion or noise in the dark, [†¦] but to an implicit action not performed on stage – some motion of the Ghost of Hamlet’s father which Bernardo, who speaks this line, must imagine he has seen and/or heard. [6] Ratcliffe also suggests that the action not performed on stage does not happen at all. Alarmingly, he refutes Claudius’s confession of fratricide in Act III, arguing unconvincingly that Old Hamlet’s murder had never taken place. [7] In spite of this he does raise an interesting issue that is concerned with the question as to why – when in Western literature dramatic narrative is defined by cause and effect – does Shakespeare place the primary cause off stage and beyond the gaze of his audience? We are left to imagine the dramatic possibilities of opening the play with the alarming and visually striking image of a brother’s murder. If Shakespeare’s decision to leave this exciting and sinister event in the wings confounds us, what, then, are we to make of the climax of the play? If we are to return to the classic dramatic structure of a play, we expect to see rising action leading to a climax that, in turn, leads on to the falling action culminated by the denouement. Hamlet gives us no such structure. There is no climax in the classic sense or if there is it appears in the final scene, not where one would expect. There is, nevertheless, one possibility that the climax may appear earlier in the play and that would be, in the traditional sense, in Act III. The murder of Polonius in Act III, scene iv might be regarded as the turning point of the play in the same way that Mercutio’s death in Romeo and Juliet is seen as such. It is at this point that we see Hamlet at a height of passion, ‘How now? A rat! Dead for a ducat, dead’ (III. iv. 23). The use of the word ‘rat’ shows Hamlet’s contempt for his supposed victim, the repetition of ‘dead’ embellishes his determination to kill, and the ducat is the small price Hamlet values the life he has just taken. The consequences of this action feed into every other event that is to happen: Claudius’s resolve to kill Hamlet, Ophelia’s eath and Laertes’s act of revenge which brings about the play’s final dynastic collapse. Once again, though, Shakespeare ‘removes’ the audience from the action, having the murder take place ‘offstage’. Polonius is murdered behind the arras and this takes us away f rom the immediacy of the action. There is no huge build up with a climactic duel as there is in Romeo and Juliet; we are not even given the drama of remorse that is evident in Macbeth. For these reasons, it is impossible to consider the death of Polonius to be the dramatic climax of the play, merely another cause leading on to another effect. This shortage of ‘action’, though, is illusory. A. C. Bradley comments on this when he suggests a hypothetical reaction to the play: What a sensational story! Why, here are some eight violent deaths, not to speak of adultery, a ghost, a mad woman, and a fight in a grave! [8] Hamlet does have a dramatic conclusion, of that no one is in doubt, but this has come after a series of procrastinations from the titular hero. All other action is kept firmly offstage. One might hear Bradley go on to say ‘Treason, pirates, war, the storming of a castle and a regime change! The latter two were included in Branagh’s film version strongly alluding to the storming of the Iranian embassy in 1981 an event that was intensely exciting and dramatic for any that can remember it. For Shakespeare, however, such extravagant action appears to be superfluous to his play and is, therefore, not of importance. As a consequence, it would appear redundant to continue analysing what is not in the play, as Ratcliffe has done at length[9], and to focus on what Shakespeare does give us. What Shakespeare does give us is words, ‘words, words, words’(II. i. 192) and it is through these words that he provides the action. It is here where I must agree with Ratcliffe when he suggests that, in Hamlet, it is the language that is of importance and not the action. [10] It is necessary, then, to look at the power of language within the play and how Shakespeare facilitates it in order to sustain a dramatic structure. Firstly, as mentioned above, the catalyst for all the action in the play happens off stage but is delivered to the audience, and Hamlet, through the words of the ghost. We know that these ords are to hold significance as we have shared Horatio’s anxiety for the ghost to ‘stay and speak’ (I. i. 142). The appearance of the ghost is not enough. It is, therefore, the words that are spoken to Hamlet in conjunction with the apparition that hel p to creates the first piece of dramatic action in the play: Now, Hamlet, hear. ’Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchard, A serpent stung me – so the whole ear of Denmark Is by a forged process of my death Rankly abus’d – but know, thou noble youth, The serpent that did sting thy father’s life Now wears his crown. [†¦] Ay, that incestuous, that adulterate beast, With witchcraft of his wit, with traitorous gifts- O wicked wit, and gifts that have the power So to seduce! – won to his shameful lust The will of my most seeming-virtuous queen. (I. i. 34-46) What is striking about this scene is how it is dominated by the ghost and how little Hamlet actually says. If it were one of the lesser characters, it could be assumed that they were struck dumb and in awe of the presence of a spectre but, even this early in the play, we know enough about Hamlet to realise that this would not be the case for him. He mentions a few lines earlier that he is not afraid, saying ‘I do not set my life at a pin’s fee’ (I. iv. 65), so why now is he so quiet? Surely Shakespeare feels that Hamlet, like the audience, should be still with trepidation at the drama that is unfolding before them. In this short passage of the ghost’s speech we have incest, adultery, witchcraft, treachery, not to mention murder. Here we see Shakespeare using the power of words to create the action upon the stage, words that, like Ratcliffe points out, enter through our ears as did Claudius’s poison. 11] Later on in the play we will see words used as poison, again by Claudius, when, in true Machiavellian style, he corrupts the mind of the vengeful Laertes. When discussing the power of words we must look at the play-within-a-play sequence of Act III, an aspect of the play which has been discussed at length by the critics but also one that brings into question another facet of action, that of ac ting. Hamlet is an extremely self-conscious play, bringing comedy into a highly dramatic moment in Act I, scene v when Hamlet asks the ghost ‘Canst work i’th’ earth so fast? (l. 170): this is an obvious comment on the crudeness of Elizabethan stagecraft. Earlier in the same scene Shakespeare has commented on the possibility of a bored audience when Hamlet comments on ‘this distracted globe’ (l. 97)[12] and, when Polonius states that when he played Caesar ‘Brutus killed me. ’ (III. ii. 103) Jenkins points out that the actors playing Hamlet and Polonius were likely to have played Brutus and Caesar respectively in an earlier play and therefore are about to ‘re-enact’ the murder. 13] If we look at Hamlet’s instructions to the players: Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on the tongue; but if you mouth it as many of your players do, I had as lief the town-cryer spoke my lines. Nor do not saw the air too much with your hand, thus but use all gently; for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, whirlwind of your passion, you must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness. O, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the groundlings, who for the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumb-shows and noise. I would have such a fellow whipped for o’erdoing Termagant. It out-Herods Herod. Pray you avoid it. (III. ii. 1-14) Again, we have a very self-conscious speech where there seems to be an in-joke upon the acting style of the actor who plays Polonius, if not intended by Shakespeare it could certainly be performed as such. There is also the awareness of audience as well in the comments about the groundlings which is rather a brave joke which, had they been enjoying the play, would have gone down in good humour. It might also be considered that Shakespeare followed up the joke by including the dumb-show that followed! If we look closely at the instructions, however, we notice the emphasis on the words rather than the action. The opening imperative is ‘Speak the speech’ and interestingly ‘as I pronounced it’ not as I acted or showed it which seems strange to say when instructing actors. It is true that in the restricted views of an Elizabethan playhouse an audience would go to hear a play but this would not be the case in a private courtly performance. Also we must remember that Hamlet is only concerned with one member of the audience; someone who, one might assume, would have the best view of the play. Hamlet’s instructions are followed by references to the tongue and mouth where the words must inevitably come from and then the simile of the town cryer again placing stress on verbal communication. Hamlet requests a limit to the ‘action’, the body movement – the acting- so that it is the language that is of paramount importance. In such a self-aware moment of the nature of acting and drama in the play are we not to assume that this is coming from Shakespeare as much as Hamlet? The players’ sequence has significance because here we have on stage the mechanics of Hamlet. There is the murder of Gonzago/Hamlet acted out on stage, the betrayal of Lucianus/Claudius and the union between the Lucianus/Claudius and Queen/Gertrude. Here Shakespeare gives us what we were denied in the first act the event which sets the whole play in motion. Not only that but by having Lucianus as the nephew to Gonzago we are also witnessing the events that are about to happen on stage or, at least, those that we expect to happen. Interestingly enough, though, is that Shakespeare has included a dumb-show as if to appease the groundlings despite his earlier comments but it is not through watching this that Claudius reacts but rather the words of the players that follows. At the line ‘On wholesome life usurps immediately’ (III. ii. 254) Claudius can no longer remain seated for he cannot deny the words, something that has been discussed and embellished by Ratcliffe. [14] The question as to why Claudius does not react to the dumb-show can be resolved in performance by choosing to have Claudius showing signs of discomfort throughout until he can finally stand it no more as in Olivier’s film version. There is nothing in the text, however, that suggests that this is how it should be performed. The king questions Hamlet, Is there no offence in’t? ’ (III. ii. 227) and in this dialogue there is nothing to suggest that he is suffering from any anxiety regardless of how this line has divided critics. [15] So once again we see that it is words that have more power, more effect and more significance than mere actions. In looking at the philosophy of action in the play one must recognise that the play is essentially a revenge play and that all action must stem from the concept of revenge. Michael Mangan defines the revenge play as a play which: harts the protagonist’s attempts to [revenge]: this may involve a period of doubt, in which the protagonist decides whether or not to go ahead with the revenge, and it may also involve some complex plotting (in both senses of the word) as the protagonist decides to take revenge in an apt or fitting way. The revenger, by deciding to take revenge, places himself outside the normal order of things, and often becomes more and more isolated as the play progresses – an isolation which at its most extreme becomes madness. [16] It would appear, from this definition, that Hamlet is, indeed, a revenge play but who is it that seeks revenge? I would argue that it is not Hamlet for, as Catherine Belsey notes, ‘[r]evenge is not justice’[17] and we are reminded throughout the play that Hamlet seeks justice. For instance, Hamlet does not act rashly for he states: Give me that man That is not passion’s slave, and I will wear him In my heart’s core, ay, in my heart of heart (III. ii. 71-73) This might suggest that Hamlet holds reason close to his heart. Here we see that contrary to popular belief Hamlet is not a man that is ruled by passion but that is not to say that he is not passionate. If Hamlet were ruled by passion he would not have devised such an elaborate ploy to confirm the guilt of the king but would have acted straight away. Gone would be the procrastinations and Hamlet could have roused up the populace as easily as Laertes does in Act IV, as Bradley points out[18], and Claudius would have been dead by Act II. Many critics that have argued this case seem to suggest that Shakespeare’s reason for prolonging the action was to fill out the five act structure of the play. [19] We are given three possible revenge heroes in the play: Hamlet we can discount, Fortinbras and Laertes. Shakespeare has provided these two characters to put Hamlet’s inability to act into stark contrast. Through Fortinbras we see the noble prince revenging the death of his father through careful planning and sharp resolve and in Laertes we see a rash young man whose desperate bid for revenge only quickens his own demise. It is important to note that even with the careful planning Fortinbras still shares Hamlet’s prolonging of the act when we consider that Denmark’s defeat of Norway was at the time of Hamlet’s birth some thirty years previous. Hamlet, however, does not seek revenge. He could have easily been able to exact it when he says ‘Now might I do it pat’ (III. iii. 73). The semantics of the word ‘might’ suggest that he has no intention of committing the murder. ‘Will’ or ‘must’ would imply a more decisive move yet Shakespeare gives us a Hamlet who is questioning his actions. His decision to spare Claudius whilst at prayer further indicates that it is justice and not revenge that Hamlet desires. Claudius points out to Laertes that ‘No place indeed should murder sancturise’ but Hamlet delays his action because he wants justice – a death for a death- like for like. Significantly, Hamlet is a revenger who is unable to act as Calhoun states he is unable to ‘play the role’,[20] or to use Ted Hughes’s metaphor: Like the driver of a bus containing all the characters of the drama, he hurtles towards destruction, in slow motion, with his foot jammed down hard on the brakes. [21] Having established the substance and value of words in Hamlet it is necessary to return to the question of dramatic climax in the play. It has always been recognised that it is a dramatic impossibility to act Hamlet on the stage in its entirety and it is not unknown for students of the text to skip through sections when reading but one thing always remains and that is the soliloquies. Within the play we have the most beautiful speeches composed in the English language and it is one of these that, I believe, forms the climax of the play. The climax of language that we are given in the play does follow the classic dramatic structure coming in Act III and at the risk of sounding cliched I would suggest that it is the ‘To be or not to be’ speech. It is in this soliloquy that we have the nub of the play rests and that is Hamlet’s internal conflict on how he should act. It has long been considered to be the musings of a troubled mind contemplating suicide and whilst no one will argue that Hamlet’s is not a troubled mind is he really deliberating the end of his own life? I would argue no. Shakespeare has already given us such ruminations earlier in the play with ‘o that this too too sullied flesh would melt’ (I. ii. 129) and I find it difficult to accept that a dramatist of Shakespeare’s calibre would not have developed his main character by the third act. In fact, I would argue that after confronting the ghost and hearing the charge against Claudius, Hamlet has been given new meaning to his life and that all thoughts of suicide have faded. ‘To be or not to be’ should read as ‘To do or not to do’ or ‘To act or not to act’ for it is in this speech that we witness Hamlet’s thoughts on whether to proceed with the killing of Claudius. Not once in the speech is there an ‘I’, nowhere does Hamlet refer to himself. His examples of the ‘whips and scorns of time’ (III. i. 70) save one do not seem to be justifications for taking one’s own life: Th’oppressor’s wrong, the proud man’s contumely, The pangs of dispriz’d love, the laws delay, The insolence of office, and the spurns That patient merit of th’unworthy takes (III. i. 71-74) Apart from unrequited love, for which many have taken their life, these seem to be the wrongs that are urging Hamlet to seek justice against Claudius. I might take this further and suggest a reading of the soliloquy where Hamlet knows that Claudius is eavesdropping, something that seemed to me implicit in Brannagh’s film. Through this reading we can see that Hamlet is acting a role for us as an audience but specifically for Claudius and Polonius. He is diverting attention from his true thoughts of murder whilst also confirming his ‘antic disposition’ (I. v. 180). In addition to this it explains why he apparently forgets the ghost of his father as he claims ‘No traveller returns’ (III. i. 80) as it would not be practical to reveal the truth at this stage. Also, the speech concludes that it is conscience that prevents him and the fear of the unknown when prior to this he has stated that it was because that God has ‘fix’d / His canon ’gainst self-slaughter’ (I. ii. 131-132). Arguably, this could be a variation of the same rationale yet there is a distinct change in tone which suggests a difference in attitude. Therefore, it is within this soliloquy where Hamlet reaches his decision which he reveals to Ophelia (and Claudius) when he says that ‘all but one – shall live’ (III. i. 150). One might argue that the opening line of this speech, ‘To be or not to be’ (III. i. 56), uncontrovertibly suggests that Hamlet is, indeed, reflecting on suicide but, once again, this is another self-conscious reflection upon the nature of drama. For Hamlet, the character in the play Hamlet, must act in order to ‘be’ and as a revenge hero, that act is the murder of Claudius. While Claudius is alive, Hamlet’s mind and soul are troubled and only through the act of revenge with ‘a bare bodkin’ can he bring about his ‘quietus’ (III. i. 75-6). Words, therefore, are the focus of this play. It is Shakespeare’s longest and in it we are given a character who ‘â€Å"comes alive† only in language’[22], it is through words that the dramatic action, except the final scene, takes place upon the stage. In terms of drama, the play is at odds with its form in that the driving action of the plot precedes the start of the play. We are given a revenge hero who is unable to live up to that title and only seems to spring into what one might call action when he has been hit by Laertes poisoned rapier and he knows that he is about to die, something which he points out twice in the scene. Indeed, in performance, the final scene can be played as equally low-key as it can be played dramatic. In a self-conscious play such as this it seems clear that Shakespeare understands the power of words. To a dramatist, all action that can be created on a stage is a representation – one that is created through words. Crucially it is through language that the world of Elsinore is created and all those that exist within it exist through the words that they speak. It is, therefore fitting that Hamlet’s dying words are ‘the rest is silence’ (V. ii. 363) for he knows that without language he is nothing. Through Hamlet Shakespeare gives us a world where action is secondary to language because, in drama, one creates the other. 3967 words (exc. footnotes) 4338 words (inc. footnotes) Bibliography Primary Sources Shakespeare, William, Hamlet, ed. Harold Jenkins, The Arden Shakespeare, 3rd series (London and New York: Routledge, 1994) Stoppard, Tom, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead (London: Faber Faber, 1967) von Goethe, Johann Wolfgang, Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship, ed. and trans. Eric A. Blackall (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995) Secondary Sources Belsey, Catherine, ‘Revenge in Hamlet’, in Hamlet: Contemporary Critical Essays, ed. Martin Coyle (London: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 154-159. Bloom, Harold, Hamlet: Poem Unlimited, (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2003) Bradley, A. C. , Shakespearean Tragedy, 3rd edn. London: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 84-166. Calhoun, Jean S. , ‘Hamlet and the Circumference of Action’, Renaissance News, Vol. 15, No. 4. (Winter, 1962), 281-298. Dickson, Andrew, The Rough Guide to Shakespeare, (London: Rough Guides, 2005) Eliot, T. S. , ‘Hamlet’ in Selected Essays (London: Faber Faber, 1951), p. 141-146. Fernie, Ewan, ‘Terrible Action: Recent Criticism and Questions of Agency’, Shakespeare, Vol. 2, No. 1 (June, 2006), 95-118. Hughes, Ted, Shakespeare and the Goddess of Complete Being (London: Faber Faber, 1992), pp. 233-239. Jump, John D. , (ed. ) Hamlet: A Selection of Critical Essays (London: Macmillan, 1968), pp. 2-32. Kettle, Arnold, ‘From Hamlet to Lear’, in Shakespeare in a Changing World, ed. Arnold Kettle (London: Lawrence Wishart, 1964), pp. 146-159. Mangan, Michael, A Preface to Shakespeare’s Tragedies (London and New York: Longman, 1991) Ratcliffe, Stephen ‘What Doesn’t Happen in Hamlet: The Ghost’s Speech’, Modern Language Studies, Vol. 28, No. 3/4. (Autumn, 1998), 125-150. ——————–, ‘‘Who’s There? ’: Elsinore and Everywhere’, Modern Language Studies, Vol. 29, No. 2. (Autumn, 1999), 153-173. ————— Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€œ [1] Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship, ed. and trans. Eric A. Blackall (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), p. 146. [2] T. S. Eliot, ‘Hamlet’ in Selected Essays (London: Faber Faber, 1951), p. 143. [3] Tom Stoppard, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead (London: Faber Faber, 1967), p. 86. [4] William Shakespeare, Hamlet, ed. Harold Jenkins, The Arden Shakespeare, 3rd series (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), subsequent references are to this edition. [5] Stephan Ratcliffe, ‘What Doesn’t Happen in Hamlet: The Ghost’s Speech’, Modern Language Studies, Vol. 28, No. 3/4. (Autumn, 1998), pp. 125-150. [6] ——————–, ‘‘Who’s There? : Elsinore and Everywhere’, Modern Language Studies, Vol. 29, No. 2. (Autumn, 1999), p. 153. [7] Ratcliffe, ‘What Doesn’t Happen in Hamlet: The Ghost’s Speech’, pp. 135-139. [8] A. C. Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy, 3rd edn. (London: Macmillan, 1992), Lectur e III, p. 93. [9] Ratcliffe, ‘What Doesn’t Happen in Hamlet: The Ghost’s Speech’ pp. 125-150 [10] Ibid. , p. 129. [11] Ibid. p. 131 [12] Having opened my Christmas presents and receiving Bloom’s Poem Unlimited after I had written this essay, I feel obliged to cite him for what I assumed to be an acute and original observation. If only Father Christmas hadn’t been so efficient, I could have at least pleaded ignorance! Harold Bloom, Hamlet: Poem Unlimited (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2003), p. 10 [13] Jenkins (ed. ), Hamlet, p. 294 [14] Ratcliffe, ‘What Doesn’t Happen in Hamlet: The Ghost’s Speech’, pp. 131-132. [15] Jenkins explains how the line has been used to show Claudius’s calm attitude to the play and to prove his unease in Jenkins (ed. ), Hamlet, p. 301. [16] Michael Mangan, A Preface to Shakespeare’s Tragedies (London and New York: Longman, 1991), p. 67. [17] Catherine Belsey, ‘Revenge in Hamlet’, in Hamlet: Contemporary Critical Essays, ed. Martin Coyle (London: Macmillan, 1992), p. 154. [18] Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy, p. 98. [19] Notably the anonymous critic in ‘Extracts from Earlier Critics, 1710-1945’ in Hamlet: A Selection of Critical Essays, ed. John D. Jump (London: Macmillan, 1968), p. 22. [20] Jean S. Calhoun, ‘Hamlet and the Circumference of Action’, Renaissance News, Vol. 15, No. 4. (Winter, 1962), p. 288. [21] Ted Hughes, Shakespeare and the Goddess of Complete Being (London: Faber Faber, 1992), p. 236. [22] Ewan Fernie, ‘Terrible Action: Recent Criticism and Questions of Agency’, Shakespeare, Vol. 2, No. 1 (June, 2006), p. 96. How to cite The Philosophy of Action in Hamlet, Papers

Why the US used the atomic bomb against Japan

Introduction The Second World War represents the worst war that has ever been fought on the face on the earth. The war involved majority of the world’s nations and culminated into the death of over 50 million people. During the war, major world powers and resources were thrown to the war (Allen and Polmar 1995).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Why the US used the atomic bomb against Japan? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Towards the end of the war, the United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japan. This paper seeks to describe the reasons why the US used the atomic bomb against Japan. There are two main reasons that prompted the United States to use the atomic bomb against Japan; the refusal to surrender by Japan and the need for the US to assert itself. Japan’s refusal to surrender Japan was persistently stubborn during the Second World War and this can be regarded as the main reason why the US used the atomic bomb against it. The government of Japan refused to surrender and pull its troops back even after its forces had been significantly weakened. By August 1945 Japan was on its knees as most if its industrial plants, air bases and harbors were destroyed. The country was also experiencing a severe short supply of food and raw materials and yet it continued to cling on most of the contested Islands. The US had successfully tested the atomic bomb (fat boy) in July 1945, and together with the other members of the allied forces, issued the Potsdam Declaration on 26th July that called on the Government of Japan to proclaim the unconditional surrender of all of its armed forces. â€Å"The alternative was a prompt and utter destruction† (Harrison 1987). On July 30th Japan gave its response- a total rejection of the ultimatum and at about the same time, began negotiations with the Soviet Union in hope of better terms. As a result, the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiro shima in August 1945 followed by further calls for Japan to accept the Potsdam Declaration or face further ruin (Heina and Selden 1997). The Government of Japan still hesitated and on August 9th the second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. After further quibbling, Japan finally agreed to surrender on August 14. The need for the US to assert it’s might The use of the atomic bomb against Japan was widely discouraged by various advisers of President Truman due to the Bomb’s ability to cause mass destruction of civilian life. After Japan’s refusal to heed the calls stipulated in the Potsdam Declaration, a section of Truman’s advisers encouraged the demonstration of the power of the atomic bomb on a desert or barren Island to encourage Japan to surrender (Heina and Selden 1997).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Truman disagreed and insisted on the use of the Bom b against Japan. Many analysts have interpreted this as a move by the US to assert it and influence the course of war. This was particularly intended to display superiority against the backdrop of a growing disdain between the allied forces and the Soviet Union. This can be justified by the cold war that followed the Second World War. Conclusion This paper sought to describe the reasons why the United States used the atomic bomb against Japan. It has been established that the US used the atomic bomb to basically end Japan’s stubbornness and end the world, and to further assert its power against the backdrop of a looming confrontation with the Soviet Union. Bibliography Allen, Thomas, and Norman Polmar. Code-Name Downfall. New York. New York: Simon Schuster, 1995. Harrison, Scott. History in the Making: World conflicts in the 20th century. London: Macmillan Education, 1987. Heina, Laura, and Mark Selden. Living with the Bomb: American and Japanese Cultural Conflicts in the Nu clear Age. New York: E. Sharpe, 1997. This essay on Why the US used the atomic bomb against Japan? was written and submitted by user Lia Jordan to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

How I Got my Indie Novel Into the Nations Largest BrickMortar Store

How I Got my Indie Novel Into the Nations Largest BrickMortar Store "How I Got my Indie Novel Into the Country's Largest Brick-and-Mortar Chain" - By Carol Cooper Carol Cooper is a journalist, author, and doctor. She writes for The Sun newspaper, broadcasts on TV and radio, and has a string of non-fiction books to her name including an award-winning textbook of medicine. In this post, Carol reveals how she got her latest novel, Hampstead Fever, into Britain’s largest chain of booksellers. For the last few weeks, I’ve bragged to anyone who’ll listen that my self-published novel, Hampstead Fever, is in a prestigious front-of-store promotion in WH Smith travel bookstores. And no wonder I’m proud. Not only am I distributing my novel as an ebook - readers can now get it at over 700 airports and train stations around the UK.  WH Smith, after all, is the go-to place to grab a good read for a journey or holiday.I don’t have a sure-fire recipe for other indie authors to follow, but I can certainly explain what worked for me. Read how @DrCarolCooper got her latest novel into UK's largest brick-and-mortar chain 1. Get out and listen to peopleI owe a lot to the London Book Fair, circa 2015. That’s where I came across WH Smith Travel buyer Matt Bates. He spoke at Author HQ, a part of the fair dedicated to writers. He was charming, knowledgeable and enthusiastic and he wasn’t full of himself, which, as I recall, one or two other speakers at the fair were.I said a bland ‘Hello’ to Matt at the end of his talk. I don’t remember my exact words, but I said nothing about my writing. Hampstead Fever  at the WH Smith at London Gatwick AirportNo harm in trying, especially as by then my book was in many bookstores including Waterstones, Heffers Cambridge, and a sizeable number of independent bookshops, and had featured in local press and radio.   I sent Matt a brief email, attaching that eye-catching cover.Matt asked to see a copy of the book. There followed a longish silence. Then he replied, proposing a promo in over thirty of WH Smith’s travel bookstores as part of a buy one, get one half-price offer.I needed to do nothing more, except talk to Clays about a reprint and arrange the discount and return terms that WH Smith requires.I’m certain the stunning cover did much of the work for me. As for the content, people have been kind enough to say that Hampstead Fever captures multicultural urban life. It’s an easy read and makes people laugh, but it also covers some weightier issues.To other self-publishing authors wanting to get into booksho ps, my single best piece of advice is this: aim for a quality product that booksellers will love to have in their stores. "Aim for a quality product that booksellers will love to feature." @DrCarolCooper In your chain of priorities, how important is it to you to get your book in stores? If you have any thoughts, comments or questions for Carol Cooper, leave them in the comments below. Find out more about the author on her website or by following her on Twitter.

Access to Law - Smart Custom Writing Samples

Access to Law - Smart Custom Writing Functions of Administrative Law and its role in Public AdministrationAdministrative law is the branch of law that governs the activities of administrative agencies of government that are involved in the daily functions of the states activities. Some of these government agency actions include making rules, arbitration, or the enforcement of a specific regulatory plan. Generally, administrative law is a branch of public law. The administrative law integrates several different areas of law of which some of them are regulations and procedures of government bodies and agencies, administrative rules, enforcement of powers of government agency authority, and restriction of access to government information. The administrative law gives special importance to the powers vested in administrative agencies, the legal relationships of such agencies, the public at large and to other government agencies as well, and the substantive rules made by these agencies too. It enshrines the laws and legal pr inciples that govern the regulation of government agencies and administration whose powers are delegated by Congress. These agencies may be state or Federal agencies, and administrative law therefore comes in to act as a representative for the executive. Overall, the administrative agencies are created for the purpose of protecting the public interest rather than vindicating private rights. The creation of state and Federal agencies under administrative law goes back to the 1900s when the Food and Drugs Act was signed into law leading to the subsequent formation of the Food and Drugs Administration, also known as the FDA late in the 1930s. The creation of the Environmental Protection Agency, sometimes commonly referred to as The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA or USEPA, came into being in the late 1970s. These agencies are under the jurisdiction of the Federal government and they are tasked with the respective responsibilities governed by the administrative law. However, these Federal agencies are not autonomous of the U.S. Congress, but are rather governed by the U.S. Congress, which is the overall law-making body in the land. Any by-laws made by these Federal agencies that are inconsistent with the U.S. constitution are deemed as going against the law; hence, they are revised to be within the law. The FDA, created in the early thirties, came about because of the pressure mounted by consumer protection organizations, journalists and other federal regulators that pushed for a stronger regulatory authority. They went ahead to publish a list of harmful products that had been passed as fit under the 1906 law. This law extensively increased the federal regulatory authority on drugs and food substances. The FDA also enforces other laws that are concerned with health and sanitation, and among these laws are the Public Health Act, the Federal Anti-tampering Act, and the Controlled Substances Act among others. The Law mandates a pre-market review of all new drugs’ safety in addition to banning all ‘unsafe’ products (Karki, 2005). It also authorizes factory inspections and extended enforcement powers in order to set best regulatory standards for foods and cosmetics in order to ensure the safety of the citizens. The major areas that FDA is involved in include new drugs , advertising and promotion of prescription drugs, generic and over-the-counter drugs, vaccines, blood tissue products and biotechnology, cosmetics, radiation-emitting devices, and veterinary products (Hilts, 2003). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is Federal Government agency mandated with the responsibility of protecting human health and the environment alike. It is directly under the authority of the White House. This is accomplished by enforcing written regulations on the environmental conservation policies based n the Congress-passed laws. Some of the tasks that it is charged with are prevention and detection of environmental degradation actions, educating the public on environmental enforcement, and setting and monitoring the pollution standards, be they air or water pollution arising from the dumping of harmful waste materials and chemicals. Some of the major areas that EPA is involved in include pesticide control. Here, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) is taken into account. Other areas are promoting the use of safer detergents that would minimize pollution effects, improving the air quality, reduction of oil pollution, encouraging water efficiency and ensuring that drinking water is safe for consumption by the citizens. Global warming and greenhouse gas emissions are also dealt with by EPA. As detailed above, these agencies appear to be very helpful in the administration of laws and Acts as set by the Congress. Although they do not operate independently of the Congress, they operate ‘on behalf’ of the Congress by enforcing the set laws and regulations at the grassroots level. These agencies are most effective because they come into direct contact with the citizens and the products, and hence they are in a very good position to enforce the laws accordingly. In this century where there is a great revolution in the manufacturing industry, the introduction of new technology and improvement of lifestyles, there is a great need for the checks and balances to be enforced, and no better way than through these federal and state agencies. Hence these agencies come in and play a vital role in the enforcing of these checks and balances according to the U.S. laws enacted by congress. This way, the people are better protected from any potential harmful products and the e nvironment is protected from degradation by encouragement of proper waste disposal and management. As a conclusion, it can be said that these federal agencies are very crucial and necessary in this century where development is on the increase, and they serve to ensure people make the right choices by being given the right options.      References Hilts, P. J. (2003). Protecting America's Health: The FDA, Business, and One Hundred Years of Regulation. New York: Alfred E. Knopf. Karki, L. (2005). Review of FDA Law Related to Pharmaceuticals: The Hatch-Waxman Act, Regulatory Amendments and Implications for Drug Patent Enforcement. Journal of the Patent Trademark Office Society 87: 602–620.

Organ Transplant Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Organ Transplant - Research Paper Example In the U.S alone over 28,000 patients under transplant surgeries and over half of these surgeries are kidneys transplants while a quarter are liver transplants. Process of Organ Transplantation Organ transplantation calls for therapeutic usage of organs to replace a non-functional organ. However, the medical process is quite complex since organ transplantation comes with its own bag of complications and challenges. Keeping aside the legal issues and paperwork involved, the first step i.e. procurement of a healthy donor is a mammoth task since it care should be taken that the blood types of the recipient as well as the donor matches since â€Å"fate of a graft depends not only on excellent surgery with avoidance of damage to the organ in the process, but, as indicated above, the degree of HLA matching of donor and recipient is crucial in any approach to tolerance† (Calne, 2005, p1979). One a suitable candidate is found the healthy organ is harvested carefully and the damaged or gan in the recipient’s body is surgically replaced with the new healthy organ. Post-surgery, the newly replaced organ is kept under observation to detect rejection by the recipient’s body. Immunosuppressant drugs are administered to help the body accept the new organ and gradually integrate it in the patient’s body as its own. ... Such phenomena lead to organ rejection or blood transfusion reaction. Heavy immunosuppressant drugs are therefore administered after a transplant surgery. Therefore, it is necessary to match the donor and receiver’s blood so that the organ acceptation by the receiver’s body is smoother. The rejection mechanism of allograft kidney transplantation was studies and it was seen that â€Å"the most common form of acute allograft rejection is initiated when donor alloantigens are presented to the T lymphocytes of the recipient by antigen-presenting cell (APC’s) â€Å"(Schwartz, 2010, p1453). A new study shows that Jagged2 plays an important role in accelerating heart transplants or cardiac tissue grafts since its signaling affects the acceptation rate of graft by regulating interleukin-6 (Riella et al, 2013, 1449). Ethics and Importance of Organ Donation Becoming a donor is a tough choice for many. There are 2 types of donor-living donor and deceased donor. Organ dona tion is an important choice that can save a lot of lives however, organ donation, in many parts of the world, has rapidly emerged into a trade. For example, poor people sell one of their kidneys to the rich and since The risk involved in nephrectomy is not in itself high, and most people regard it as acceptable for living related donors (Radcliffe, 1998, p1951). However some people find the procedure too invasive and thereby refuse the whole idea of organ transplantation (NHMRC,1997,P12). Brain death and organ donation Organs are procured from cadavers however brain dead individuals provide fresher organs for harvest. This, stirs up an ethical issue since complete loss of brain function needs to

Interactions Between Policymakers And Scientists Essay

Interactions Between Policymakers And Scientists - Essay Example The understanding of the political leaders often originates from those whom they interact with and their environment. Hence, knowledge due to scientist interacting with policymakers and politicians contribute significantly in trying to find the solutions to the global warming while formulating regulations. Global warming brings together the policy makers and scientists who try to determine causes and possible solution. The continuous exchange of ideas between scientists and policymakers across the globe shows the urgency of the matter. Moreover, these interactions between scientists and policymakers define the types of regulations in place in trying to control climate change. Governments use many ways in an attempt to control climate change based on the scientific evidence. However, there are opposing groups of people that view climate change as a natural factor that does not require human intervention (Humphreys, Blowers, James & Jehlicka, p. 17). This contradicting opinions and uncertainty from science play a significant role in the formation of climate change policies. In the scientific context, uncertainty involves lack of understanding or measurement of something. In the past, scientists had limited access to policymakers that deterred their interaction and exchange of ideas. The scientist had the knowledge of possible future impacts if people take no actions to limit the emission of global warming. However, the passing scientific knowledge to politicians proved challenging until the introduction of scientists in the government department. Besides, the formation of IPCC involving both policymakers and scientists increased their interaction (Humphreys, Blowers, James & Jehlicka, p. 75). There were also limitations in passing the information between the policymakers and scientists due to the language that scientist used in the description.

Radio Communication System for a Motorcycle

Radio Communication System for a Motorcycle Part 1: Introduction 1.1 BACKGROUND INVENTION This invention relates to a radio communication system for a motorcycle wherein a radio communication circuits is attached on a helmet and performs radio communication with another radio communication circuits attached on another helmet. This helmet provides a wireless communication between two helmets for intercommunication or entertainment system. It is also included with solar energy system which will recharge the battery so that it will be constantly applicable. That is why we call it â€Å"Smart Helmet†. As we know, there a number of different types of helmets that is use across many different type of industries and environment. However, they all are use in form of protective gear. For example, wearing hard hats is standard practice when working in construction site, as well as when operating heavy industrial equipment, etc. Sports athletes, such as baseball and football players, also wear helmets for protection and it is one of the most critical pieces of equipment for a professional race car driver. Helmets are also used in the military services and one type of helmet that is one of the more commonly seen is a motorcycle rider helmet. Motorcycle riding helmets are very sophisticated and specialized for the activity. In recent years, helmet wearers have encountered a wide array of methods by which audio content can be delivered to and transmitted from a helmet, such as a motorcycle or racing car helmet. Current systems for listening to music while riding a motorcycle generally involve a factory installed or aftermarket radio and speaker system mounted on the motorcycle. This is due to hard communication between each other within a motorcycle because of interruption in wind and engine noise. Thus, we invent a communication system ability to communicate with each other. The speaker system must be powerful enough to overcome the road, engine and wind noise to allow a rider to listen to the music when the motorcycle is at highway speeds. In this system, the rider usually has a wire connecting the helmet to a radio mounted on the helmet and the speakers. These systems may also include a microphone integrated into the helmet to allow riders to communicate each other. 1.2 PROJECT OBJECTIVES There are several main objectives for this project: To understands the basic concept of two way communication and solar energy system. To understands Push-to-Talk technology system To understands how solar energy system operates To enhance the ability of the helmet To perform circuit operation To gain knowledge on circuit designing and structure 1.3 PROJECT GOALS The Overall Project Goal was to enhance the quality and effectiveness of LSC grantees services to clients by providing training and technical assistance and serving as an information clearinghouse on technology innovations for the legal services community. There were two specific goals as identified in the Evaluation Framework approved by LSC: Provide training, technical assistance and informational resources that increase the understanding legal services program directors, managers and technology staff have about the ways the use of available technologies can improve services to clients. Publicize, promote and provide resource materials about successful local/national technology projects to foster the replication of technology innovations throughout the legal services community. 1.4 PROJECT SCOPE General Project Scope: The project will include rehabilitation or replacement of SN 050-0088. A bridge condition report (BCR), hydraulic report, type size and location (TSL) study, location drainage study and project report will be required and should follow the applicable Department manuals and guidelines. Intersection geometrics will be studied as needed in accordance with Department policies. Geotechnical testing and analysis will be required for development of type size and location drawings for the structure. The scope of work shall include all items necessary to provide an approved project report, bridge condition report, hydraulic report, location drainage study and type size and location drawings as needed. 1) Data Collection: Review data supplied by the district (old plans, pictures, traffic counts, survey data, crash data, right-of-way information, road-way data, and examples). Field check project, and review data from other sources. 2) Field Survey: A topographical survey will be required. Horizontal and vertical control will be provided by the District for the existing alignment. Survey of the existing structure shall include all necessary detail to meet Department policy and to support the proposed scope of construction. The survey shall extend down side roads and beyond existing right of way in order to accommodate anticipated proposed construction. Roadway survey shall extend at least 50 beyond the existing right of way and include any necessary drainage features. Survey shall extend 600 down intersecting roads and cross sections will be taken every 50 and at all entrances and special features. Bridge and hydraulic surveys will be required under this contract. Hydraulic surveys will follow Department policies. 3) Right of Way: The Department will draft existing right of way (station and offsets) on to the topography including property lines and owner identification. The district will provide names, addresses, and tax parcel I.D. numbers for all nearby property owners. IDOT will also mail the property owner letters regarding easements or proposed right of way. No right of way plats or plans will be included in this contract. The consultant will determine construction limits and proposed right of way and easement needs. The consultant will provide construction limits and all proposed ROW or easements on the plan and profile sheets. 4) Drafting: The consultant will plot existing and proposed plan and profile sheets, proposed drainage sheets, existing and proposed cross sections. Development of typical sections, preliminary staging details, proposed construction limits, proposed right of way and exhibits for included studies and reports will also be necessary along with any other work to complete the phase I study and other reports/studies. The consultant shall send the district one full size copy of the plan sheets for utility mark-ups. The district will make copies and send them to the utility companies. The consultant will then incorporate any utility information onto the plan sheets. 5) Alternate Design Studies: Alternatives will be studied to provide bicycle and pedestrian accommodations as part of structure rehabilitation or replacement. The preferred alternative will be incorporated into the planning and design of the project. 6) Location Drainage Studies: See the IDOT Drainage manual section 2-100 thru 2-500 for required format and analysis. Work includes studying the existing drainage patterns including structures, ditches, outlets, etc., developing drainage areas, determining discharges; developing a required system, comparing existing and proposed, developing alternates, determining impacts, developing recommendations, determination of culvert extensions, preliminary inlet spacing, capacity calculations; in-line storm water detention design; ditch design, minor culvert analysis, sizing storm sewer, and everything else needed to complete a drainage report for the project. The drainage study should address flooding records within the project as appropriate. 7) Hydraulic Report and Bridge Condition Report: Work shall include all items necessary to complete a hydraulic report and bridge condition report (BCR) for the structure. This includes, but is not limited to, hydraulic survey, bridge inspection/load rating, hydraulic analysis, staging feasibility determination and cost comparison. 8) Type Size Location Study: TSL studies will meet the requirements of the District and the Bureau of Bridges and Structures. Geotechnical testing and analysis will be necessary for development of the TSL. A preliminary TSL shall be submitted to the District for review before transmittal to the Bridge Office. 9) Intersection Design Studies: Two intersections are anticipated to be included in the scope of work (Dee Bennet Road and Starved Rock Road). Intersection design studies may be required at these locations. Traffic counts will determine the need for an IDS at each location. Typically 3 submittals are required draft, pre-final and final. IDS work includes signal warrant analysis at all locations, combination lighting, and capacity analysis at all locations, as well as all other requirements set forth in the Bureau of Design and Environment Manual. Traffic data will be provided by the district. 10) Preliminary Report: Work includes written report, calculating quantities, cost estimates, crash analysis, approval forms, structure fact sheet, design exception forms (if needed), roadway design, exhibits, photos, maps, typical sections, plan and profiles, IDS plans, environmental exhibits, existing and proposed vertical and horizontal data, design criteria checklist, tree schedule, culvert rehabilitation diagram, traffic management analysis, preliminary erosion control plan, and any other project related documents to complete the project report. The district will provide the following for insertion into the report if needed: Crash data and exhibits; coordination meeting minutes; hazardous mailbox support surveys; bridge condition report approval; letters to property owners and other local officials; environmental studies, analysis, and reports; and pavement design if needed. 11) Public Meetings (2 planned): Consultant will prepare exhibits and handouts, locate and reserve the meeting room and attend meetings such as the dry run, local official meeting, and the public meeting. Two public meetings (open house format) are anticipated, the first to evaluate alternatives and the second after the EA and all IDSs are completed. The first will be considered an informational meeting and the second a public hearing. Comments from each meeting may need to be incorporated into the project. Exhibits needed for public hearing: Location map, Crash maps, Purpose and Need, Summary of Key Environmental impacts, Full size set of plan and profile drawings including cross sections, approved IDSs , two sets of aerial exhibits / color drawings, board mounted proposed typical sections, draft project report, and a copy of the EA report that is approved by the FHWA for public review. The district will send letters to local officials, prepare minutes for local official meetings, and send response letters to citizens or groups as needed. The EA, after approval by the FHWA for public hearing, will be made available at the public hearing and for a minimum of 15 days in advance of the public hearing. The published hearing notice will announce the availability of the EA and where it may be obtained or reviewed. Public meeting exhibits are similar. The public meeting does not require environmental documents or approved IDSs. The consultant will forward display advertisements for each public meeting/hearing to two different newspapers chosen by the District and pay for these advertisements. This will be a direct cost. Rental of a meeting room will also be a direct cost. 12) Handling Traffic: Stage construction, detours and combinations of the two will be considered for this project. The consultant will identify construction methods and sequences which will minimize motorists inconvenience and incorporate this information into the Traffic Management Analysis for the project. The work will be limited to a conceptual plan only since detailed plans will be done in Phase II. A Queuing and Delay Analysis will be performed since IL 178 is considered to be â€Å"approaching significance† by Safety Policy 3-07. The consultant will provide pertinent data and District 3 will perform the analysis. 13) Progress meetings: The district estimates that 3 progress meetings with IDOT and 12 consultant in-house meeting will be required. Outside of typical administration. 14) Final Report: Compilation of the final report will be based on information from public meetings, comments from District circulation and other input which may impact the project. This also includes hours for revising preliminary report, printing, assembling, and binding the final report. 15) Environment: Anticipated Categorical Exclusion Follow Department policies This work includes examination of Environmental Survey Request (ESR) results to determine impacts and determine appropriate environmental documentation. The consultant will provide excavation depths and quantities for areas identified for special waste and will catalog trees impacts and make recommendations for tree replacement locations. IDOT will develop and submit ESR to Central Office for processing. If it is determined that an Environmental Assessment (EA) is the appropriate form of documentation the extra work will be added by supplemental agreement. Impacts to parks or Historic properties will be included in a supplement (if required). The district will prepare any Wetland Impact Evaluation forms (if required). 16) Administration: Project administration including payroll, billing and filing. This also includes project administration by sub-consultants. 17) Quality Control/Quality Assurance: This is a required line item for both labor hours and billing. This item is to include QC/QA hours of the prime consultant as well as any sub-consultant. 1.5 SYSTEM OPERATION 1.6 PUSH-TO-TALK INTRODUCTION Push-to-talk (PTT), also known as Press-to-Transmit, is a method of conversing on half-duplex communication lines, including two-way radio, using a momentary button to switch from voice reception mode to transmit mode and communication can only travel in one direction at any given moment. However, it is not limited in distance as with normal walkie-talkies, as the conversation is carried across the mobile network. A normal cell phone call is full-duplex, meaning both parties can hear each other at the same time. To control which person can speak and be heard, PTT requires the person speaking to press a button while talking and then release it when they are done. The listener then presses their button to respond. This way the system knows which direction the signal should be traveling in. Most PTT systems allow group calling, meaning one person can speak to everyone in their assigned or current group at once, just by pressing a PTT key. Other key features of the service mean that users immediately recognize it as different from normal voice. †¢ group calls are possible as well as one-to-one calls (but still only one person can talk at a time) †¢ presence information is normally associated with this service, so users can see on their phone screen whether other people are logged on to the PTT service and will therefore be available if called †¢ PTT voice services are typically priced below normal mobile phone calls (but obviously this is a marketing issue) †¢ call hold times are typically much shorter the walkie-talkie style of speech lends itself to the short, snappy transfer of specific information, rather than normal lengthier conversations †¢ the always-on nature of data networks makes for near instant call setup times that make it very easy to use. 1.7 SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM INTRODUCTION In todays climate of growing energy needs and increasing environmental concern, alternatives to the use of non-renewable and polluting fossil fuels have to be investigated. One such alternative is solar energy. Solar energy is quite simply the energy produced directly by the sun and collected elsewhere, normally the Earth. The sun creates its energy through a thermonuclear process that converts about 650,000,000 tons of hydrogen to helium every second. The process creates heat and electromagnetic radiation. The heat remains in the sun and is instrumental in maintaining the thermonuclear reaction. The electromagnetic radiation (including visible light, infra-red light, and ultra-violet radiation) streams out into space in all directions. Only a very small fraction of the total radiation produced reaches the Earth. The radiation that does reach the Earth is the indirect source of nearly every type of energy used today. The exceptions are geothermal energy, and nuclear fission and fusion. Even fossil fuels owe their origins to the sun; they were once living plants and animals whose life was dependent upon the sun. Much of the worlds required energy can be supplied directly by solar power. More still can be provided indirectly. The practicality of doing so will be examined, as well as the benefits and drawbacks. In addition, the uses solar energy is currently applied to will be noted.

Differences between bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. Essay

Bacteria: These are tiny microorganisms, they cannot be seen with the naked eye. They exist on virtually every living thing or object in the environment i.e. dirt, water, caves, trees, dead animals, and within everybody living on earth. Its nutrition is from its surroundings. We carry bacteria in the body, mainly in the intestines, on the genitalia or on the skin. Bacteria can be good or bad. It can help our immune system but there are bad bacteria which make you become ill. Meningitis is a bacterial infection, this can be life threating to a young baby and is most common in young children. It is an infection of the membranes covering the brain and/or spinal cord, this is a reason it can be life-threatening. MRSA is another big bacteria illness, this commonly affect hospitals and is due to lack of hygiene. Food poisoning is a common cause of illness caused by bacteria. This is because bacteria lives on food. If cooked and food has not reached a high enough temperature to kill off bac teria then it can cause the bacteria to rapidly grow and cause sickness to a person. The types of food poisoning are; salmonella, E. coli, norovirus, campylobacter, listeria, clostridium perfringens. These are also linked with viruses too. Also most sexual transmitted diseases are a bacterial infection i.e. syphilis, gonorrhea. Also Lyme disease, this is spread by the bite of a deer ticks most common around wooded, rural areas. If untreated it causes an arthritis-like condition that can last for months. Viruses: This is a disease producing agents which are far smaller than bacteria. They are enclosed in a protein coating which makes them more difficult to destroy. These replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. They can infect all types of life forms i.e. plants, animals, and bacteria. The most common virus is the flu, it’s a contagious infection (it spreads from one person to the next). Foot-and-mouth is a virus disease which is caused within an animal. Plant viruses such as mild mottle virus eat away at the flesh of i.e. peppers. This can cause harm onto animals and people if they consume the food. Some viruses can replicate within archaea, these are double stranded DNA viruses with unusual shapes. Chicken pox is another virus illness, this affects normally in children. Fungi: This comes from the plant kingdom but are quite different from green plants. The basic  unit of a fungus is a hypha which is a hollow tube. This spreads out over and into the food material making a visible mesh. Some mass together to create toadstools, releasing spores into the environment. Some fungi can be quite dangerous causing hallucinations but some can even result in death. There are 1.5 million different types of fungi in the world. Out of that only 300 are known to cause illness. Aspergillosis – this normally occurs with a person who has a lung disease or a weakened immune system. Dermatophytes – this in fungal infection to the skin and nail i.e. athletes foot. Fungal keratitis- this is the inflammation of the cornea (the clear front part of the eye). Parasites: A parasite lives in a close relationship with another organism (host) this causes harm. It is dependent on the host for its life functions e.g. viruses are common parasites. It lives, grows and multiplies off the host. A hookworm is a common type of parasite, pets can get thes e and transfer then onto humans. Hookworms attach in the lining of the small intestine, causing disease and malnutrition as well they eat the nutrition and prevent the host from getting them. Parasites can give off toxins that make the host sick resulting in an infection. Malaria is one of the deadliest parasite diseases, this is why when flying abroad you must ensure all injections against parasites are up-to-date. So there are three types of organisms where parasitic infects; protozoa, helminths and ectoparasites. Protozoa are singled celled that live and multiply within humans. An infection caused by this is giardiasis, this is caused from drinking water infected with protozoa. Helminths are multi-celled organisms that can live alone or in humans and animals. These are commonly known as flatworms, tapeworms, ringworms, roundworms. Ectoparasites are multi-celled organisms that live or feed of the skin of humans such as mosquitos, fleas, ticks and mites. When we have an invasion of the body of microorganisms which are not normally present, we call it an infection. This is when germs such as parasites, microbes etc. attack our body and cause harm (disease) or even death unto a host (organism) body. An infection may remain localised in the body (stay in one place) or it may spread through the blood or lymphatic vessels to become systemic (body wide). So something which is linked with ‘infection’ is something called ‘colonisation’. This is the process in the biology by which a microorganism will spread to new areas/part of the body. Colonisation is the development of a bacterial infection on/in an  individual. The individual becomes a carrier to the infection but may have no signs or symptoms of illness. They do have the potential to infect others. Systemic infections affect not just one part but all of the body, examples of this are flu/HIV. And localised infections are limited to one area ear/eye infection. Identifying poor practise that could lead to infection are fairly simple and basic. Ensuring that you wear clean clothes every day, washing hands very regularly, wearing all correct PPE. Incorrect storing or cooking of foods will lead to infection so you must ensure that things are stored correctly i.e. fresh meat should not be kept on top shelf of the fridge above fruit and veg, contamination of blood could occur. 2.1 What conditions are needed for the effect of growth on micro-organisms? Food is the main source, organisms need food to survive, foods with high protein such as fish and poultry. Warmth is another key factor, anything between 20-40 degrees will really encourage microorganisms to develop and grow, and moisture enables the multiplying process further. Air (usually) although some microorganisms do not need the use of air to spread. So all of these factors seems very every day and very easy for an organism to grow very quickly although a single M.O becomes 2 every 20 minut es. This means the process can take fairly long so regularly cleaning surfaces and storing food correctly will decrease the contamination. 2.2 Infectious organisms that can enter the body are many. They can potentially cause harm to the body, they enter through different openings in the human body. As well as this they can be transferred from mother to baby during pregnancy. The respiratory system – the infectious organisms that cause communicable diseases such as common cold, flu, and pneumonia. They enter through the nose and then begin to multiple, if not treated right away they can cause other additional problems. The digestive system – with this the organisms are found in food i.e. food poisoning. If food is not correctly cooked at a high enough temperature to enable the bacteria to be killed off. The organisms enter the digestive system and can make you sick when the body is trying to digest the tainted food. Some food poisoning can be fatal if they’re left untreated. Penetrating through the skin – infections organisms that can cause sickness  like tetanus and hepatitis C enter the body through the skin. Once entered they start to multiply and can cause more serious problems if untreated. Sexual transmission – some infections such as sexually-transmitted diseases like HIV and gonorrhoea, are transmitted through body fluids such as semen. Once it has entered the body the infection multiplies and can cause complications if it’s not tre ated. Contact with animals – if you come in contact with an animal that is infected with i.e. rabies the virus can enter your body through the skin. Transferring from mother to child – a woman who is pregnant can transfer lots of kinds of infections such as rubella, German measles, this can be done without realising, and vaccinations for babies once born must be given to prevent the infections. Infections are a significant problem which humans have to face on a daily basis. They can affect the body in some of the most unpleasant ways. They have multitude causes, some are completely uncontrollable. Some people can have an infection and not even know (asymptomatic infections). There are actually five types of microorganisms called bacteria, viruses, fungi, rickettsia, and protozoa. Microorganisms are normally found in the human body in small amounts and are actually indispensable. Sources of infection can be classified as endogenous and exogenous. In endogenous infections, the agent causing the problem comes from the human body. Some of the microorganisms living here exceed their limits ad start causing damage. This might happen because the immunity is compromised and it is very common in patients who have had surgery or in undernourished people. Exogenous are sources of infections that microorganisms from outside the human body find their way inside and cause illnesses or di seases. Exogenous sources of infections that can be split into three main categories: a human origin, of animal origin and of environmental origin. Animals are a source of infection. If an animal bites you, they can transfer the infection. Water, air and soil are significant other sources of infection. This can be contaminated water from parasites. Air and soil are not sources of infection themselves but they mainly contain non-pathogenic agents that can get contaminated microorganisms carried by humans or animals and contribute in spreading them. Air is one of the most important sources of spreading as we breathe air in. The term of how an infective agent can be transmitted to a person is the transmission of microorganisms directly from one person to  another by one or more reasons. These being: Droplet contact – coughing or sneezing on another person Direct physical contact – touching an infected person, including sexual contact Indirect physical contact – usually by touching i.e. soil contamination or a contaminated surface. Airborne transmission- if the microorganism can remain in the air or long periods. Fecal-oral transmission – usually from contaminated food or water sources. So transmitting of a microorganism can have many routes in which it can be caught. It can be indirect, via another organism, either a vector (mosquito) or an intermediate host (tapeworm) indirect transmission could involve zoonoses (infectious disease that can be transmitted form non-human animals) or more typically larger pathogens like macro parasites with more complex life cycles. Times when an infection is more likely to occur is when a person has a low immunity or is on long term antibiotic therapy. Poor hygiene when treating wounds or dealing with personal care can aid the transmission of infection. Any contact with bodily flu ids, hygiene i.e. dirty services or clothes (contamination).